Introduction

In the context of globalization, cultural competence has become a fundamental component of effective international business practice. Understanding how social norms and symbolic behaviors shape professional interactions is particularly relevant when engaging with cultures where relationships play a central role. In China, two key concepts that illustrate this dynamic are hongbao (red envelopes) and guanxi (关系), often translated as networks of relationships.

This article provides an overview of these concepts and examines their relevance in both social and business contexts.

Hongbao: Meaning and Cultural Significance

A hongbao is a traditional red envelope containing money, typically exchanged during significant life events such as Lunar New Year, weddings, and other celebrations. The color red is culturally associated with prosperity, luck, and protection against negative influences (China Highlights, 2023).

Importantly, the meaning of the hongbao extends beyond its monetary value. It functions as a symbolic gesture that communicates respect, goodwill, and social recognition. As such, it reflects broader cultural values related to harmony, reciprocity, and interpersonal sensitivity.

Occasions of Use: Social and Professional Contexts

Hongbao are widely used in personal and social settings, including:

• Lunar New Year celebrations
• Weddings and family ceremonies
• Births and personal milestones

In addition, their use can extend into professional environments. In some corporate contexts, hongbao are distributed during festive periods (e.g., Chinese New Year) or significant organizational moments, such as company openings or achievements. These gestures are generally intended to express appreciation, reinforce morale, and maintain positive relationships (Yang, 1994).

While such practices may appear unusual from an external perspective, they are often embedded in culturally specific norms governing social exchange.

Symbolism over Monetary Value

A key feature of hongbao is the predominance of symbolic meaning over financial value. The act of giving is often more significant than the amount itself.

Elements such as timing, context, and numerical symbolism (e.g., preference for auspicious numbers like 8) contribute to the interpretation of the gesture (Hwang, 1987). This reflects a broader emphasis on relational balance and the maintenance of social harmony.

Guanxi: The Relational Framework

To understand the role of hongbao in business settings, it is essential to consider guanxi. Guanxi refers to a system of social networks and influential relationships that facilitate cooperation and mutual benefit.

According to Gold, Guthrie, and Wank (2002), guanxi is based on long-term reciprocity, trust, and the ongoing exchange of favors. Within this framework, social and professional interactions are interconnected, and relationship-building is often a prerequisite for successful business engagement.

Practices such as gift-giving—including hongbao—can therefore be interpreted as part of a broader relational strategy rather than isolated economic transactions.

Cross-Cultural Interpretations

From a cross-cultural perspective, practices like hongbao may be interpreted differently depending on local norms and regulatory frameworks. In some Western contexts, gift-giving in professional environments may raise ethical concerns, particularly in relation to transparency and anti-corruption standards.

However, these interpretations are shaped by distinct cultural and institutional frameworks. As Hofstede (2001) suggests, differences in values—such as individualism versus collectivism—can significantly influence how business practices are perceived and evaluated.

The Importance of Cultural Awareness

Cultural awareness is essential for navigating international business environments effectively. Misunderstanding culturally embedded practices such as hongbao may lead to miscommunication, reduced trust, or ineffective collaboration.

Conversely, developing an informed understanding of local norms enables individuals and organizations to:

• build stronger professional relationships
• enhance communication across cultural boundaries
• reduce the risk of misinterpretation

Conclusion

Hongbao and guanxi represent key elements of Chinese social and business culture, reflecting a broader emphasis on relationships, symbolism, and reciprocity.

Rather than viewing these practices through a purely external lens, it is important to situate them within their cultural context. Doing so allows for a more nuanced understanding of how business interactions are structured and maintained in China.

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References

China Highlights (2023). Red Envelopes (Hongbao) in Chinese Culture.

Gold, T., Guthrie, D., & Wank, D. (2002). Social Connections in China: Institutions, Culture, and the Changing Nature of Guanxi. Cambridge University Press.

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. Sage Publications.

Hwang, K. (1987). Face and Favor: The Chinese Power Game. American Journal of Sociology, 92(4), 944–974.

Yang, M. M. H. (1994). Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China. Cornell University Press.

This article provides a simplified academic overview for educational purposes and does not represent all practices across China.

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Introduction 

In China, many of the Western apps we are used to like WhatsApp, Instagram, Google  Maps, YouTube, or Gmail do not work properly or are completely blocked because of the  country’s strict internet censorship system. To avoid getting cut off from maps, chats, or  payments, it is essential to download and set up the apps that actually work in  China before you travel and understand which local alternatives to use once there. 

Transportation 

Booking trains or flights and getting around Chinese cities can be challenging if you do not  speak much Chinese, since many local apps are only in Mandarin and the English interface  is often limited. A great option is Trip.com, which allows foreigners to purchase train and  flight tickets using their passport and a full English interface. Within cities, DiDi is China’s  equivalent of Uber and has an English version with features designed for foreign users. To  navigate, Baidu Maps, or Amap (Gaode) are far more reliable than Google Maps in China,  and downloading the offline map of your city before departure can save you in case of weak  or no internet connection. 

Internet Connection 

China’s internet is heavily regulated, and most Western services including Google,  YouTube, Instagram, and Facebook are blocked or extremely restricted. To keep access to  your chats, email, and social media, you need a reliable VPN (Virtual Private Network) that  works well in China. Trusted options include NordVPN, ExpressVPN, and Surfshark, all  proven to perform in the country. It is crucial to download and install your VPN before  entering China, test it in advance, and have it ready to activate upon arrival, since many  free or low-quality VPNs either do not work or are quickly blocked.

Payments 

In China, most payments, even in small shops or food stalls, are made digitally. The two key  apps are Alipay and WeChat Pay, both of which can be used by foreign tourists. With Alipay,  you can enable the “Tour Pass” feature to link international Visa or Mastercard cards and  make cashless payments easily. WeChat Pay is also useful, especially for longer stays or if  you want to use the app’s messaging and social features. Without these apps, you might  find many businesses refusing foreign cards, so it is advisable to set them up in advance.  Still, it is a good idea to carry some cash for small purchases, rural areas, or emergencies. 

Translation and Language 

In many daily situations, such as reading restaurant menus, finding your way around, or  communicating with drivers, a translator is essential. Download Google Translate and  make sure to download the Chinese language pack for offline use. The camera feature is  especially helpful for translating menus or signs. Alipay and WeChat also include built-in  translation tools in their chat and service sections, which can be useful when the interface  is partially in Chinese. You can also install Pleco, an excellent offline Chinese–English  dictionary, especially useful when traveling outside major tourist areas. 

Hotels and Accommodation 

When booking accommodation in China, you need to make sure the hotel accepts foreign  guests and is officially registered to do so. Use reliable platforms like Trip.com or Booking.com, which provide full English interfaces and accept  international payments. Always check that the hotel is listed as “foreign guest friendly,”  read recent English reviews, and confirm that the staff or customer service can  communicate in English or provide international support. 

Insurance and Health

While travel insurance is not mandatory, it is strongly recommended, since private  healthcare in China can be expensive and hospitals often require payment upfront. Apps  and services like Heymondo, AXA Travel Insurance, SafetyWing, or Allianz Travel offer  coverage for medical expenses, emergency evacuation, and lost luggage. Make sure your  insurance plan explicitly covers travel in China, provides 24-hour English assistance, and  includes digital claim management through a mobile app in case of emergencies abroad.

The post Useful Apps for Travelling in China  first appeared on Bocconi Chinese Student Association.

Article written by Alice Gong Jin Zi Lu

Suzhou (苏州 Sūzhōu) is located in the southeastern part of China, in the region known as Jiangnan, literally “south of the Yangtze River.” This area is famous for its mild climate, fertile land, and rich cultural traditions. With a history spanning over 2,500 years, Suzhou is widely recognized as one of the best-preserved ancient cities in China. Its old town layout, classical gardens, and historic streets remain largely intact, offering a rare glimpse into traditional Chinese urban life. 

Suzhou sits beside Lake Tai and is crossed by the ancient Grand Canal , which has shaped its development for centuries. Once known as Wu (吴 Wú) during the Spring and Autumn Period, Suzhou rose to prominence in the Sui and Tang dynasties and flourished in the Ming and Qing eras, when private gardens became cultural symbols for scholars seeking retreat and wealthy families pursuing refined living. Some people believe that the name “Suzhou” may have evolved from the ancient name “Gusu,” which referred to Mount Gusu (姑苏山 Gūsūshān) near the city. This poetic name was used in early historical records and reflects the city’s deep cultural roots. The official name “Suzhou” was adopted during the Sui Dynasty in 589 CE, possibly as a simplified form of “Gusu” for administrative purposes. 

The city is renowned for its classical arts, including Kunqu Opera, guqin music, Song brocade, Kesi silk, Suzhou embroidery, and the celebrated Biluochun tea. 

Biluochun tea, one of China’s most prized green teas, originates from Dongting Mountain near Lake Tai. Its name, meaning “Green Snail Spring,” comes from the tea’s tightly curled leaves resembling snail shells. The leaves are then withered, rolled, and dried with great care, preserving their floral aroma and sweet, slightly fruity taste. 

Suzhou embroidery (Su Xiu) is one of the Four Great Embroideries of China, with a history of over 2,000 years. It is celebrated for its ultra-fine silk threads, elegant color blending, and over 40 types of stitches. The most iconic technique is double-sided embroidery, where both sides of the fabric display equally vivid designs. Historically, Su embroidery was used in royal courts and among intellectuals, and today it is recognized as a National Intangible Cultural Heritage. 

Also its architecture reflects the craftsmanship of the Xiangshan Guild, known for elegant woodwork and traditional design. This architectural heritage is a key part of Suzhou’s enduring charm, which lies not in modern skyscrapers, but in its quiet streets, misty canals, and timeless beauty. 

Suzhou’s classical gardens are masterpieces of Chinese landscape design, each season revealing a different mood and meaning. Rooted in traditional aesthetics and philosophy, these gardens embody the principle of “borrowing scenery”, using surrounding elements like mountains, water, and architecture to create layered visual depth and emotional resonance. 

As the seasons unfold, each garden in Suzhou becomes a stage for nature’s quiet transformation, revealing how beauty evolves in silence and space.

Spring awakens the Humble Administrator’s Garden (拙政园 Zhuōzhèng Yuán) in a flourish of blossoms and flowing water. The garden’s open layout and winding paths mirror the vitality of the season, inviting reflection and renewal. In the heat of summer, serenity settles over Canglang Pavilion (沧浪亭 Cānglàng Tíng). Bamboo groves sway gently in the breeze, and moonlight dances on the pond’s surface. The garden’s poetic name evokes a timeless longing for simplicity and harmony. Autumn casts a golden light on the rugged rockeries of Lion Grove Garden (狮子林 Shīzǐ Lín). Its labyrinth of stone formations, carved to resemble crouching lions, offers not just visual drama but a contemplative journey through strength and solitude. In the stillness of winter, the bell of Hanshan Temple (寒山寺 Hánshān Sì) tolls across Jinji Lake (金鸡湖 Jīnjī Hú), echoing through the cold air like a memory. The temple, immortalized in Tang poetry, becomes a place of introspection, where silence deepens and time slows. 

Life in Suzhou feels like being gently carried forward by water. The pace here is never too fast, never too slow. 

In the morning, mist rises from the canals, drifting over the grey tiles and whitewashed walls. The air has a soft, slightly sweet humidity. The alleys aren’t fully awake yet—only the sound of a teahouse door opening, and a copper kettle being set on the stove, making a tiny ringing sound. A small boat sometimes passes under the bridge, the ripples spreading out in circles, like time echoing under the old stone arch. 

A day in Suzhou often begins with a bowl of noodles—the smell of broth and soy sauce filling the air. When you finish it and step outside, the sky is just starting to brighten, and the osmanthus trees (桂花树) by the street still hold drops of last night’s dew. 

By noon, the city becomes quieter. 

This is the perfect time for tea. In the old neighborhoods, teahouses sit half-open behind wooden doors, with the smell of Biluochun (碧螺春) drifting out. A few snacks are laid out on the table—red-date cake (红枣糕), slices of sweet lotus root (糖藕)—gentle and just sweet enough. 

Sunlight comes through the bamboo blinds, making the whole room feel soft. Someone is playing chess, someone is daydreaming by the window. Time seems to slow down a little more here. 

By evening, the stalls along Pingjiang Road (平江路) start to get lively. Oil bubbles in the woks, and the smell of fried stinky tofu (臭豆腐) mixes with the sweetness of roasted chestnuts (糖炒栗子). Tourists and locals walk side by side, stopping now and then to buy a jiuniang (cup of osmanthus rice wine with glutinous rice balls) (桂花酒酿圆子). When you scoop it up, you can still see the golden blossoms floating on top. Walk a bit further and the river reflects the lights. Boat shadows sway, and the sound of Suzhou Pingtan (苏州弹词 / 苏 州评弹) drifts through the narrow lanes. 

In Suzhou, eating isn’t just about filling your stomach—it calms you. Every dish is unhurried, just like the city itself. It looks quiet, but it’s always moving, slowly and gently.

The post Discover China EP. 7 – Suzhou first appeared on Bocconi Chinese Student Association.

Nanjing sits where leafy boulevards meet one of the Chinese mother rivers. It’s a city that pairs vast Ming-era walls and solemn memory with lakeside views as well as scholarly ambience, not to mention the delicious soups you can find in eastern China. So if you’re looking for a destination with historic, cultural, and culinary wonders, then Nanjing might be your place.

Set on the lower Yangtze(长江), Nanjing has been the capital for 6 dynasties and early Ming, as well as the Republic of China. The history of these lies in the manyfold historical elements  such as gate towers, mausoleums and museums ever present in the city. Nowadays, it’s a university hub, for this reason the streets look bookish, bike-friendly and the cafès full. Four seasons shape the city in gorgeous manners: plum blossoms in late winter, lotus on the lakes in summer, maple reds in autumn, so the city feels different with every visit.

In order to unveil the city’s history, we must begin with the Ming City walls and the Xuanwu Lake. A walk here offers an amazing skyline and water view, dropping down to the Lake’s islands for a breath amongst the blossoming lotus when it’s the season.

The Laomendong Historical District, literally “East of the Old Gate”, built during the Eastern Wu period (222–280 A.D.), has burst into a vivid commercial center, while preserving its wooden structure, providing a glaze into the deep history of Chinese southeastern villages and a wandering between the harmonic blending of tradition and modern really immerses the visitors into a different world.

Nearby, the Fuzi Miao, temple to Confucius resides on banks of the Qinhuai River, dates back to the 11th century. It does not only offer a view into the traditional architecture as well as Confucianism, but it’s more known for the district’s illuminated evening scene, creating a stunning modern lightshow merged into the history of the people.

Right in the same area, the Zhanyuan garden can be found. If you are more into the natural world in blend with the city, then this place offers the exact thing you are looking for.

If you are more of a museum kind of person, interested in the discovery of knowledge with guiding inscriptions, then the Nanjing Museum and the Memorial Hall of the Nanjing massacre are the places for you. The first is the oldest national museum built by the Chinese government, it offers artifacts from the Ming and Qing Dynasties as well as the renowned Han dynasty ox-shaped bronze lamp with a total of over 430,000 objects. It offers a vast array of galleries, ranging from art, history to digital and  Intangible Cultural Heritage. Truly a welcoming place for everyone. Furthermore, the access is free, though it requires online reservation. The latter is a solemn museum built to memorialize and document the victims and the atrocities during 1937-1938, when this very city was the capital. Thus, the place to come if you need to recenter your day.

Cradled by the Yangtze River, Nanjing is a city that feels alive in every sense —To truly know Nanjing, you have to taste it, walk through it, and feel its pulse from sunrise to sunset.

Nanjing’s story often begins at the dining table. Food here isn’t just sustenance — it’s heritage. Locals speak about their cuisine with pride, and it shows in every dish. The famous Nanjing salted duck is a perfect introduction: tender, fragrant, and delicately seasoned, a recipe perfected over centuries. Wander through the lively Confucius Temple market, and your senses come alive — the aroma of duck blood soup simmering in pots, the sweetness of sticky rice cakes, the sizzle of shengjianbao (pan-fried buns) crisping on the grill.

But Nanjing isn’t trapped in tradition. In neighborhoods like Xinjiekou and Laomendong, stylish cafés and experimental restaurants mix local flavors with modern flair. Whether it’s sipping a latte in a minimalist coffee shop or sharing fusion dim sum with friends, the city’s evolving food scene captures its spirit: grounded in history, yet always curious.

Every corner of Nanjing seems to tell a story. The mighty Ming City Wall still guards the heart of the city, offering sweeping views that stretch beyond time. The Nanjing Art Museum and the Presidential Palace reveal a city shaped by resilience, creativity, and transformation. Come evening, stroll along Fuzi Miao (Confucius Temple) and you’ll see the city at its most charming — lanterns reflected on the Qinhuai River, students laughing over street snacks, families gliding by in boats. It’s a scene that feels timeless yet alive, where everyday life and tradition flow together.

By day, Nanjing moves with purpose — students filling libraries, professionals crowding cafés, locals cycling through tree-lined streets. But when night falls, the city changes tempo. The 1912 district glows with music and conversation, its rooftop bars and jazz lounges buzzing with a cosmopolitan vibe. Street performers play beneath warm lights, and small eateries stay open into the early hours, serving comfort food to night owls and dreamers alike.

Nanjing is a city that invites you to slow down and take it all in. It doesn’t demand attention — it earns it, gently, through every flavor, every melody, and every moment that lingers long after you’ve left.

The post Discover China EP. 6 – Nanjing first appeared on Bocconi Chinese Student Association.

Let’s set a scene: beads of sweat trickle down the foreheads of the fighters from the three kingdoms. The reds, the blues and the yellows, face each other in the heat of battle. You wouldn’t be wrong into imagining a medieval battle set in the English Countryside, yet what this reflects is China’s on-demand economy. 

For a long time, it was a two-horse race between Meituan and Alibaba’s ELE.me, but this market was thrown into frenzy when JD.com entered. Their weapons of choice: cutting commissions, upgrading rider benefits and slashing prices down to zero. What followed looked and was argued by many regulators to be predatory pricing of unprecedented levels. These excessive price cuts and a dysfunctional market eventually led to necessary government intervention, in an attempt to stop the companies from spiralling into bankruptcy. In this article we will delve into how three tech giants had their profits run dry through headline-grabbing discounts designed to yank demand at any cost.

The first of the three combatants is Alibaba, often labelled China’s Amazon, one of the most well-known companies on the planet, let alone in China. It was started in 1999 in Hangzhou by the famous Chinese billionaire Jack Ma and his 17 colleagues. Its operations span marketplaces such as Taobao and Tmall, a logistics network through Cainiao, and a wide suite of cloud-computing services like Google’s Cloud. Alibaba’s acquisition of ELE.me for $9.5 billion in April 2018 reflected a bold move to take full ownership of the online food delivery company a major player in China’s delivery sector, easily identified by its fleet of blue-uniformed couriers. It was Alibaba’s effort to cement its power in China by expanding its “new retail” initiatives. These very initiatives underscored Alibaba’s push to blend online and offline commerce. In 2025, Alibaba tightened Ele.me’s integration with Taobao, its vast online marketplace, by launching an instant-commerce portal promising delivery in under an hour. Within weeks, it was fulfilling more than 40 million orders a day, doubling to 80 million at the height of promotional campaigns. Alibaba’s entry into a highly competitive food delivery market proved extremely successful, and by 2025 they controlled 33% of the market as the second most powerful company in what became a duopolistic market structure.

Next, we have Meituan, a company that was founded in 2010 as a Groupon-style deal site that evolved into China’s dominant local life super app. It eventually transitioned to the delivery market and quickly became the powerful market player with analysts estimating its current market control to be 65%. This in combination with ELE.me’s 33% control meant that the companies controlled of 98% of the market, a dangerous duopoly position for consumers. This situation inevitably contributed to a highly entrenched structure, causing incredibly high barriers to entry and making any new share grab incredibly expensive. In July 2025, Meituan reported a record 150 million daily orders across its food and instant retail categories. Furthermore, Meituan is known to have not always played a fair game and carries an antitrust fine from its “pick one of two” policy, which forced restaurants into exclusivity agreements by preventing them from listing on competing delivery apps, stifling competition across the sector. This policy led regulators to fine the company $534 million in 2021 and had a significant negative effect on the company’s reputation within China. Meituan’s drivers wear a distinctively yellow uniform, shown below.

The final contestant and the underdog of the 3 competitors is JD.com. It wasn’t the first time that JD had attempted to break into the delivery market, having previously tried to do so unsuccessfully in 2015 through a service called JD Daojia. It struggled which was historically a first-party e-commerce/logistics powerhouse. JD re-entered the takeaway market in February 2025, a dangerous attempt at trying to enter and usurp two tech giants. 

How JD.com lit the fuse

The moment that JD entered the market all hell broke loose, with its first move leading to a labour reset. It didn’t just dangle coupons in the eyes of potential customers; it reframed the labour market by promising to sign riders to full social insurance and a housing fund, raising the bar industry-wide. Meituan decided to respond immediately on the very same day by scrapping certain overtime and late delivery penalties. In addition, it committed to pay social insurance for its full-time and stable part-time riders from Q2 2025. This was all an effort to build harmonious labour relations by pretending that these decisions had been under development since 2022, when they had only been the created in response to the now threatening competition posed by JD. With this strategic move JD managed to squeeze itself in and scavenge a market share of 4-5%. What followed would be the norm as the companies competed; JD publicly accused rivals of pressuring riders who accepted its orders, while Meituan denied wrongdoing, and the “war of words” wiped billions from market caps.

Then, JD decided to drop a massive campaign which granted me discounts nationwide. Low prices ranging from 0.01 meals and 50% discounts reigned across the country as JD attempted to stimulate demand for its new platform and gain market share. The competitor soon follows it, and the competition is labelled as the fight of the three kingdoms, with steady orders hitting a record 150m daily amid the heated battle between JD.com and Alibaba. JD publicly denounced its competitors on social media, something which is regular occurrence in China but a foreign concept for most executives in the West. All of this occurred while ELE.me continued to retain its market position in the shadows, and once they saw the intense competition they were facing, they went to their own parent company, Alibaba, and duly received $7.3 billion in fresh funding.

The fierce price war only led to more discounts, which drained industry profits even more, and as mid-July came, Meituan released a fresh batch of new discounts. The media dubbed it a three-way fight as JD and Meituan publicly sparred, and Alibaba leaned in with its Taobao instant commerce and Super-Saturday Flash events. Merchants on TaoBao Flash saw big non-food category month-over-month surges during July promotions. Amid the order frenzy, Meituan hit a stunning 150m daily orders, while Alibaba’s instant commerce exceeded 40 million daily orders within weeks. Furthermore, JD had over 25m daily orders at its peak, driving a flood of rider tasks.

This order influx had a positive effect for many riders, with social media being flooded by screenshots of riders showing ¥1000-¥1700-day earnings during peak demand. But those wins weren’t representative of typical earnings and came with extreme routing pressure. There were plenty of examples where consumers ordered items that simply didn’t arrive and we’re being messaged by riders and at the same time you had people ordering different things to what was delivered. Furthermore, there was a massive financial impact on the 3 company’s stock margins profits in stock moves in 2025 being greatly affected by this price competition that eventually led to government intervention. With zero one or free promo proliferating the China’s State Administration for Market Regulation (SAMR) summoned Meituan, ELE.me and JD in mid-July, ordering them to comply with the e-commerce anti-unfair competition laws by making them promise to stop excessive subsidy escalation.

Looking at the financial impacts of this wild west affair, it is very clear that it had a long-lasting and profound effect on both performance and the financial health of the three companies involved. Meituan’s revenue increased by +12% YoY to 91.8b RMB but adjusted net profit was down 89% YoY as subsidies and incentives ballooned costs and bled their finances dry. JD similarly experienced increased revenue in Q2 2025 of 357B RMB, which was an increase of 22% YoY. However, its profit margins were greatly compressed, going from 4.3% a year earlier to 1.7%, an indication that the impacts of instant delivery investment would drag onwards. Alibaba was the least hit of the group and came through the quarter much steadier, with its revenue reaching 240B.

All in all, subsidies and discounts torched company profits, invited regulators back into the conversation and forced everyone to decide whether market share or margins matter more over the coming year. Even after the SAMR’s intervention, subsidies continue to reign on as instant retail in China continues to be an engine for growth. Alibaba has reported that its TaoBao instant commerce topped 40m daily orders within a month, so the high demand may be here to stay. As instant retail goes beyond food, analysts project the market will more than triple by 2030 to $352B as the delivery market develops beyond just meals; it can now be everything from groceries to pharmacy and small electronics.  There are a few competitors to watch that may try and usurp the incumbent firms:

1. The first of them is Pinduoduo (Duoduo Maica): an online Chinese retailer which pilots instant retail infrastructure that was founded in 2015 and is currently headquartered in Shanghai. With its slogan of “Together, More Savings, More Fun”, we can expect it to be right at home within a market characterised by large discounts. In the future expect aggressive grocery-led promotional campaigns where Pinduoduo is at its strongest.

2. Then we have SF Intra-City, a third-party courier that is currently the largest independent third-party on-demand delivery platform in China. Its instant delivery service currently covers a wide range of items, including food, fresh produce and flowers. Its growing revenue and merchant base gives merchants an alternative to platform fleets, and it currently poses a threat to the 3 tech giants controlling the game.

3. Lastly, we have the short-video platforms such as Douyin (the Chinese version of TikTok) and Kuaishou. building off order-in-feed journeys, they have the potential to greatly disrupt the market with their unique selling point: you’re watching the food being reviewed, so why not just order it directly from the app? Today they hand off fulfilment of orders to Meituan and other third parties, but tomorrow they could leverage their credible demand funnels and enter as strong market participants.

Only time will tell whether these potential competitors may turn the war into one of more than 3 kingdoms, but the signs show us that the incumbent firms market control may not last for much longer.  

This has happened elsewhere: the EV price war playbook

China’s EV sector ran an extremely similar script where large price cuts and discounts eventually led to the collapse of profitability margins for big market players such as BYD, Nio and XPeng. In the middle of 2025, China’s Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and other regulators ended up warning carmakers to stop with their ‘disorderly price cuts’, citing that there was overcapacity coupled with “involution” (intense and self-defeating price competition) that was negatively impacting competition within the sector. The Chinese government even launched quality/consistency inspections as exports ramped up as a relief valve, leading to US sanctions and tariffs on Chinese EVs as well as any countries that bought from them (such as Mexico). If discounts and price competition continue to occur in the delivery market, we can expect similar government and regulatory intervention with guidance against excess subsidies and more forceful nudges towards ‘healthy competition’.

As the Chinese government faces disinflation and deflation risk with its CPI currently sitting at 0.2% it is faced with a difficult quandary as its economy is also experiencing weak economic growth of 4.8% (below its goal of 5%) driven by a property crisis and weak domestic demand. Consumers are remaining cautious as the government uses targeted stimulus such as trimming their policy rate by 10 bps to 1.4% and government bonds with much longer-maturities of 20-50 years to fund public investment. These steps should support growth, but they do not reflect a giant stimulus package which would help unleash large amounts of consumer expenditure. What is clear however, is that they need to get price wars such as the ones raging on in the delivery market and across the economy under control or risk companies suffering. Furthermore, they must also incentivise individuals to spend now-not wait for potential discounts-through potential stimulus packages. Policymakers will need to restore household confidence and incomes before spending will re-accelerate, and the Chinese economy returns to the booming growth phase we once saw.

The post The Race to the Bottom: How Price Wars are Shaping China’s Economy first appeared on Bocconi Chinese Student Association.

How was traditional Chinese porcelain made? The west uses the term porcelain to refer to white ceramics that have been fired in a kiln at temperatures of around 1300 °, but in China there exists several white ceramics that all might be termed porcelain. The variation between ceramics in China had to do with geographical location as the two main materials for Chinese porcelain; Kaolin rich clay and porcelain stone were abundant in the North and South respectively. In northern China, due to the abundance of the mineral in the clay, wares were often made of kaolin, creating pieces like Ding ware which was named for the prefecture they were produced in (Ding Zhou) and so fine that they were the first to be used for imperial purposes within the palace, in the south, the greater abundance of  porcelain stone made it the main element of porcelain in the south. There also existed variations between the north and south by how they fired their ceramics in oxidizing or reducing conditions, historically porcelain in the north was said to be denser and compact with a warm, ivory-colored glaze from being fired in oxidation, while the south’s porcelain was more glassy, with a texture and sparkle of fine sugar with a cool, bluish glaze from being fired in oxidation. 

Starting from China, porcelain found its way to Europe thanks to an enthusiastic western explorer: Marco Polo. Thanks to his 13th-century journey along the Silk Road, he introduced Europe to the fascinating Chinese porcelain, a material he described extensively in his accounts of Zayton and Tingui, now known as Quanzhou and Dehua, two of the most renowned centers of ceramic production.  Following archaeological discoveries in these regions, there was enough evidence to prove the existence of the same delicate Qingbai wares he admired. Moreover, a porcelain jar linked to Polo’s era is still preserved in Venice’s San Marco treasury. His writings opened China to the West while sparking European curiosity that would later be fulfilled through maritime trade: from the 16th century onward, Portuguese and Dutch merchants carried large amounts of Chinese porcelain to Europe, which became the cradle of luxury and precious materials. This east-to-west journey not only transformed global trade but paved the way to China’s influence as the birthplace of the world’s most sought-after ceramic art.

Over time, Chinese porcelain has evolved, becoming both daily-ware and high art deeply rooted in China’s culture and craftsmanship. The co-existence of distinguished styles such as the soft-green celadon of Long Quan, the snow-white “Blanc de Chine” from Dehua and the elegant blue-and-white wares from Jingdezhen, all reflect geography, materials and cultural taste. These creations are not just for show: they are part of everyday Chinese life (tea sets, tableware, decorative vases) which has evolved and changed while preserving its 2000+ years roots at the same time. Considering the modern market, these porcelain forms also intersect with design, luxury and export trends, proving that China still dominates both the craft and commerce of fine ceramics.

Porcelain is called “China” because it embodies the very essence of the nation that created it: its invention, refinement and global journey all trace back to Chinese soil, artisans and innovation. From its ancient kilns to the halls of European palaces, porcelain carried the name and prestige of China across the world. More than a material, porcelain became a symbol of elegance, endurance and cultural identity.

Bibliography:

https://embercollective.com/blogs/the-ember-collective-blog/porcelain-s-journey-to-europe

https://gotheborg.com/glossary/dingware.shtml

https://embercollective.com/blogs/the-ember-collective-blog/porcelain-s-journey-to-europe?srsltid=AfmBOooOduHjrRdE34GeKtbdzycb38BYBuNP7h1PFpiKEboWpbgMV8I5

https://ambpechino.esteri.it/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Marco-Polo_exhibition_eng.pdf

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-journal-of-archaeology/article/chinese-porcelain-jar-associated-with-marco-polo-a-discussion-from-an-archaeological-perspective/DE3C18BB07350811AB6A9A886B8F16BD

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Article by Alexander Tvaladze

For anyone even slightly obsessed with history, it’s hard to avoid stumbling across the name Canton. It’s almost impossible to find any other settlement that might have influenced the history of China and the world so much. Canton has definitely changed its appearance, but also its name. It’s ranked as the third most populous city in China, with a current population of 19 million people,. Nevertheless, the soul and the function have never gone; Guangzhou remains the main trade hub for the Chinese economy. Once a crowded port, full of merchants from Portugal, Britain, Persia, Africa, India, and China, Guangzhou continues to attract substantial amounts of investments and tourists. 

Situated on the magnificent Pearl River, near Hong Kong, its southeast location and direct access to the South China Sea have all been huge strategic advantages for the city. Its position ensured a natural connection between inland China and the rest of the world, facilitating economic and cultural exchange. The city covers almost 7,400 square kilometers and serves as the capital of Guangdong Province, one of China’s economic powerhouses. Ideally balanced warm climate is why Guangzhou has earned its nickname “Flower City”. Flowers bloom year-round in its parks and along its avenues.

Now let’s turn to the historical function and importance of the famous Canton. 

According to some historical accounts, the city was founded in the 9th century BC. The city gained more power and importance during the Qin dynasty (221 – 206BC), when the emperor Qin Shi Huang unified China’s fragmented states into one consolidated empire. Under Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279), Guangzhou became the main port of the country, connecting the Chinese mainland with Africa, Persia, and India. By the 18th century, the Chinese government introduced the Canton System, limiting all foreign trade to just this one city. However, as the Europeans became leaders in marine and shipbuilding, Canton, with its unique location and exceptional strategic importance, became an immensely attractive place for European superpowers, including the Dutch, Portuguese, and most notably British. Interestingly even the very name Canton is an European one that was mistakenly attributed to the city instead of the province. The British East India Company traded silver and opium in exchange for porcelain, tea, and silk while the European settlements multiplied on the coastline. Nonetheless, the Qing government, observing the deadly effects of opium flow in the country, banned any import and trade with the rest of the world, including Canton, forcing China into full isolation. These events led to the famous Opium Wars, which resulted in British victory and strengthened England’s position in Asia for the following century. Ironically, the same city that once symbolized foreign pressure layer became a heart of Chinese resistance against European and British rule. Sun Yat-sen, the founding father of China, started his revolutionary movements in Guangzhou. Since the 1980s, Guangzhou has served as the leading place for Chinese economic development and innovation, changing not only the course of Chinese history but also shaping the innovative future of the world, as it has many times in the past. 

Today, Guangzhou is one of the wealthiest cities of China, serving as an important node of the Pearl River Delta. Alongside Hong Kong, Macau, and Shenzhen, Guangzhou contributes a massive share of China’s GDP and is a global leader in manufacturing and technology. The city is the home of big companies, including Guangzhou Automobile Group and Zhujiang Brewery. For those who are interested in business fairs, Guangzhou offers the oldest Chinese trade event called the Canton fair. It attracts buyers and manufacturers from all over the world, and, as centuries ago, this variety of cultures contributes to Guangzhou’s exceptional cultural heritage. 

Even though Mandarin Chinese serves as an official language of the city, the Cantonese language is still widely spoken among the citizens. For those who seek an exceptional Cantonese experience, it’s recommended to visit the Opera. Exceptional music, acrobatics, martial arts, and acting resonate with China’s history, full of greatness, wisdom, and battles for independence. The Opera and the river stand side by side, symbolizing the eternal flow of the music, its power to enrich culturally as once Guangzhou was enriched economically. The visitors can also feel the European influence on the northern bank of the Pearl River,  at the heart of an old district. The Gothic Cathedral, which serves as the seat of the Archbishop of Guangzhou, reminds visitors of the multicultural wealth and the history of Canton. It is one of the few cathedrals in the world to be entirely built of granite. Alternatively, visitors can see the temple of the six Banyan Trees – the Buddhist temple that amazes the viewers with its architectural art and flower pagoda shape.The Zhujiang New Town district is known for its skyscrapers, including the famous Canton Tower, which rises into the sky. The tower symbolizes the current economic and political weight of the city, its influence on global trade and innovation. If anyone gets a chance to visit Guangzhou in November, it’s a must to attend the “Guangzhou International Light Festival”. This sightseeing transforms the city into a picture full of vibrant colors and lights. This variety of colors is not just breathtaking,  but symbolic as well, showing how Guangzhou brought all of the most beautiful cultures of the world into one place. 

Furthermore, the city is the birthplace of dim sum, an array of delicate steamed, baked, and fried dishes: shrimp dumplings, pork buns, egg tarts, and rice noodle rolls. The ritual of yum cha (drinking tea) makes families and friends gather around round tables, chatting and enjoying the sweet evening.

Guangzhou is more than just a city – it is a living chronicle of China’s resilience and path to greatness. To walk through Guangzhou is to travel through centuries of history and to glimpse, with every skyline, the boundless future of Guangzhou. 

The post Discover China EP. 5 – Guangzhou first appeared on Bocconi Chinese Student Association.

Introduction

In 2025, relations between China and the United States combine two seemingly contradictory dynamics. On the one hand, the two countries are locked in long‑term strategic rivalry: they compete over military power, cutting‑edge technologies, alliances and influence over global rules. On the other hand, they remain deeply intertwined through trade, finance, supply chains and global governance issues such as climate change and public health.

Rather than a clean “Cold War‑style” decoupling, what has emerged is a pattern of managed interdependence. Both sides accept that complete separation would be economically damaging and destabilising, but they are actively shaping, restricting and sometimes weaponizing interdependence in sensitive sectors. This duality became especially visible in 2025, with new U.S. legislation to lock in restrictions on AI chip exports to China, large‑scale Chinese naval deployments around Taiwan and Japan, crisis‑management talks in Hawaii, and a tariff‑for‑fentanyl deal that tied trade policy to joint efforts against synthetic opioids.

This article explains how strategic rivalry and managed interdependence coexist. It first sketches the structural drivers of rivalry, then looks at security tensions in the Indo‑Pacific, before turning to geo‑economic and technological competition. It then highlights how both sides are simultaneously building narrow channels of cooperation and concludes with the broader implications for global order.

1. From Engagement to Strategic Rivalry

For much of the post‑Cold War era, U.S. policy towards China was framed around “engagement”: integrating China into global markets and institutions in the hope that it would become a “responsible stakeholder” in the existing order. That bet has largely been abandoned. In U.S. strategy documents and defence planning, China is now described as the primary long‑term competitor and a comprehensive challenge to U.S. power and influence.

This shift reflects a classic power‑transition logic. China’s rapid growth has made it a near‑peer economic and technological power, while the United States is determined to retain its leading position, particularly in Asia. Realist theories of great‑power politics suggest that such situations generate enduring mistrust and competition, especially when a rising power seeks greater influence in its region and beyond.

At the same time, the two states embody different political and economic models. The United States promotes liberal democracy and relatively open markets; China emphasises party‑led governance, sovereignty and state‑directed development. This does not amount to a rigid ideological bloc confrontation, but it does sharpen disputes over issues like human rights, digital governance, development finance and the interpretation of international law.

Taken together, these structural factors mean that strategic rivalry between China and the United States is not simply a short‑term policy choice but a long‑term feature of the international system.

2. Security Rivalry in the Indo‑Pacific

The Indo‑Pacific is the main arena where this rivalry is playing out militarily. Long‑standing flashpoints, Taiwan, the East China Sea, and the South China Sea, have become more volatile as both sides increase their military presence and as U.S. allies react to Chinese moves.

2.1 Chinese deployments and regional reactions

In early December 2025, China deployed more than one hundred naval and coast guard vessels across East Asian waters in what has been described as its largest maritime show of force to date. The operations stretched from the Yellow Sea to waters near the disputed Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands, through the Taiwan Strait and into the South China Sea and western Pacific. Taiwan and Japan publicly expressed concern that such a wide‑ranging deployment threatened regional stability and pledged to step up monitoring and coordination with partners.

This kind of operation illustrates how routine exercises can be perceived as coercive signalling. Beijing insists that its forces operate lawfully in waters under its jurisdiction or in high seas; neighbours and the United States interpret large‑scale deployments as an attempt to normalise a more assertive Chinese military posture. The result is a classic security dilemma: measures one side sees as defensive look offensive to others, triggering counter‑moves and arms build‑ups.

An earlier incident in October 2025 highlighted the same dynamic further south. Chinese coast guard vessels rammed and damaged an anchored Philippine government boat near Philippine‑controlled Thitu Island and used water cannon against two other vessels nearby, in waters an international tribunal has said do not belong to China. Manila and Washington condemned the actions, and shortly afterwards the United States and the Philippines announced a new joint task force to coordinate operations and strengthen deterrence in the South China Sea.

2.2 Crisis management and military dialogue

Despite these tensions, both governments recognise the danger of accidental escalation. Under the long‑running Military Maritime Consultative Agreement, they resumed substantive talks in 2025. In November, military officers met in Hawaii for a second round of maritime security discussions that year. The talks were described as “candid and constructive”; both sides reviewed recent air and sea encounters and discussed practical steps to improve operational safety.

These meetings do not remove the underlying rivalry, but they are an example of managed interdependence in the security domain: even as they prepare for potential conflict, both sides accept that they have a shared interest in avoiding accidents, miscalculations and uncontrolled spirals.

3. Geo‑economic and Technological Competition

Security rivalry sits on top of dense economic and technological links. The United States and China are each other’s major trading partners, and global production networks remain tightly woven across East Asia and North America. At the same time, both governments increasingly treat trade, investment and technology flows as instruments of national security. This has produced a pattern of selective decoupling inside a broader framework of continued interdependence.

3.1 De‑risking, not full decoupling

Instead of trying to sever all economic ties, Washington and its allies talk about “de‑risking”: reducing dependence on China in critical sectors such as semiconductors, batteries, pharmaceuticals and certain digital infrastructure, while allowing—and in many cases encouraging—trade and investment in less sensitive areas. Beijing is pursuing its own version of de‑risking by promoting indigenous innovation, diversifying export markets and experimenting with export controls on strategic inputs such as rare earths.

In practice, this means that interdependence is re‑engineered rather than abolished. Production of high‑end chips, for example, is being reshored or “friend‑shored” to the United States, Japan, South Korea and parts of Europe, while consumer electronics, garments and many services continue to flow across the Pacific at scale.

3.2 The AI chip battlefield: the SAFE CHIPS Act

Advanced semiconductors are at the heart of this techno‑strategic contest. They power not only civilian AI applications but also military command systems, surveillance, autonomous weapons and cryptography. In October and November 2025, the Trump administration negotiated limited deals with U.S. chipmakers that allowed some AI chips to be exported to China in exchange for a special 15 per cent tax on those shipments.

This triggered a backlash in Congress. In December 2025, a bipartisan group of senators unveiled the Secure and Feasible Exports (SAFE CHIPS) Act. The bill would prohibit the Commerce Department from approving licenses to sell more advanced AI chips than China currently receives for 30 months and oblige the department to brief Congress before any future rule changes. The aim is to prevent any administration from significantly loosening existing controls without legislative oversight.

The SAFE CHIPS initiative illustrates how strategic rivalry is being built into U.S. domestic law, locking in constraints on technology transfers even as commercial interests push in the opposite direction. At the same time, the legislation stops short of a total export ban. Lower‑end chips and broader consumer hardware continue to reach the Chinese market, underscoring how the goal is to manage technological interdependence by drawing red lines around the most sensitive components.

3.3 Tariffs, fentanyl and the politics of linkage

Another striking 2025 development was the linkage between trade and the fight against synthetic opioids. In October, the U.S. government announced that a special tariff on Chinese imports connected to fentanyl‑related concerns would be cut from 20 per cent to 10 per cent. In return, China committed to tighter control over the production and export of key fentanyl precursor chemicals as part of a broader package aimed at easing bilateral economic tensions.

This agreement shows how economic and security issues are increasingly intertwined. Fentanyl is a major public‑health and law‑enforcement problem in the United States, while China has an interest in avoiding reputational damage and further sanctions. Linking tariff relief to enforcement pledges allows both sides to claim a win: Washington can present it as a step towards tackling overdoses, and Beijing can highlight reduced tariffs and a reset of part of the trade relationship.

Such deals do not end rivalry, but they are another example of managed interdependence: economic instruments are used both to coerce and to incentivise cooperation on specific problems.

4. Cooperation Within a Competitive Framework

The fentanyl‑tariff agreement is not an isolated case. Even in a period of intense competition, the United States and China continue to cooperate selectively in areas where interests overlap and the costs of non‑cooperation are high.

The Hawaii maritime security talks in November 2025 fall into this category. While neither side is reducing its military footprint in the region, they are trying to establish clearer rules of the road for encounters at sea and in the air. The working‑level discussions in Hawaii, under the long‑standing consultative framework, focused precisely on near‑miss incidents involving warships and aircraft, and on practical measures such as communication protocols and notification procedures.

Similarly, the fentanyl agreement reflects a recognition that purely unilateral enforcement will not solve the problem of synthetic opioid trafficking. Stricter Chinese controls on precursor chemicals matter for U.S. public health outcomes, while small adjustments in tariff policy are a relatively low‑cost concession for Washington in the context of an otherwise highly restrictive trade regime.

Beyond these headline issues, both countries continue to interact in multilateral forums on climate, financial stability and global health. Progress is uneven and often overshadowed by disagreements, but the basic point remains: strategic rivalry has not eliminated the functional need for cooperation on transnational challenges. Instead, cooperation has become narrower, more transactional and more closely tied to visible pay‑offs.

5. Implications and Conclusion

The 2025 picture of U.S.–China relations is therefore mixed. Strategic rivalry is deepening across military, technological and normative dimensions. Chinese naval deployments and coercive actions in the South China Sea are pushing U.S. allies such as Japan and the Philippines closer to Washington and raising the risk of incidents at sea. U.S. legislative initiatives like the “Safe Chips Act” aim to harden long‑term restrictions on technology transfers. Tariffs, export controls and investment screening have become permanent tools of statecraft.

At the same time, complete decoupling has not occurred. Trade and financial ties remain extensive, global supply chains still rely on Chinese manufacturing and U.S. demand, and both sides recognise the costs of trying to unwind this interdependence fully. Instead, they are attempting to shape and bound it: insulating sensitive sectors, diversifying critical inputs, and using chokepoints—from AI chips to rare earths and precursor chemicals—as tools of leverage.

The simultaneous pursuit of rivalry and managed interdependence has several important implications:

1. Crisis risks remain high.As the number of military assets operating in close proximity rises, so does the chance of accidents and miscalculations. Crisis‑management mechanisms like the Hawaii talks are essential but cannot fully offset the structural tensions around Taiwan and the South China Sea.
2. Geo‑economic fragmentation is likely to continue. Even if tariff levels fluctuate, the use of export controls, sanctions and industrial policy to pursue strategic goals will keep pushing the global economy towards partially separate blocs in critical technologies and supply chains.
3. Middle powers face growing pressure to choose sides. Countries in East and Southeast Asia, as well as in Europe and the Global South, are trying to hedge—maintaining economic links with both giants while avoiding security confrontations. How successful they are will shape whether the emerging order is bipolar, fragmented or genuinely multipolar.

Overall, the U.S.–China relationship in 2025 is neither a simple partnership nor a clean Cold War‑style confrontation. It is better understood as a “stable‑if‑managed” rivalry, in which both sides seek advantage while accepting that they cannot fully escape mutual dependence. The future stability of the international system will depend on how effectively Washington and Beijing, along with their allies and partners, can maintain this balance: competing hard where interests diverge, but preserving enough cooperation and restraint to prevent their rivalry from tipping into open conflict.

References

1. Alper, A. (2025) ‘US senators unveil bill to prevent easing of curbs on Nvidia chip sales to China’, Reuters

https://www.reuters.com/world/us/senators-unveil-bill-keep-trump-easing-curbs-ai-chip-sales-china-2025-12-04

• Maalouf, K.R. (2025) ‘China in the Indo-Pacific: October 2025’, Council on Foreign Relations, 24 November. 

https://www.cfr.org/article/china-indo-pacific-october-2025

• Noland, M. (2025) ‘US–China fentanyl deal could benefit the economy and save lives’, RealTime Economics, Peterson Institute for International Economics, 30 October. https://www.piie.com/blogs/realtime-economics/2025/us-china-fentanyl-deal-could-benefit-economy-and-save-live
• Reuters (2025) ‘Taiwan, Japan voice concern over Chinese military movements’, Reuters, 5 December. 

https://www.reuters.com/world/china/taiwan-japan-voice-concern-over-chinese-military-movements-2025-12-05

• U.S. Department of Defense (2024) Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2024: Annual Report to Congress. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Defense. 

https://media.defense.gov/2024/Dec/18/2003615520/-1/-1/0/MILITARY-AND-SECURITY-DEVELOPMENTS-INVOLVING-THE-PEOPLES-REPUBLIC-OF-CHINA-2024.PDF

• U.S. Department of State (2025) ‘Statement on dangerous Chinese actions in the South China Sea’, Office of the Spokesperson, 13 October. 

https://www.state.gov/releases/office-of-the-spokesperson/2025/10/u-s-statement-on-dangerous-chinese-actions-in-the-south-china-sea

• Wang, A. (2025) ‘China, US hold “candid” maritime security talks amid Japan, South China Sea tensions’, South China Morning Post, 22 November. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/military/article/3333801/china-us-hold-candid-maritime-security-talks-amid-japan-south-china-sea-tensions

The post Strategic Rivalry and Managed Interdependence between the United States and China in 2025 first appeared on Bocconi Chinese Student Association.

Article by Linda Gao

Introduction

Hangzhou sits at the crossroads of tradition and modern development. As the capital of Zhejiang Province, it lies on the southern edge of the Yangtze River (长江), about two hours south of Shanghai.
The city has a long and rich history. It was already a major center of culture and trade in the Middle Ages and later served as the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty. Marco Polo once described it as “the most splendid city in the world.”

Today, Hangzhou blends its ancient heritage with modern innovation. It is home to companies such as Alibaba, Geely, and DeepSeek, and its skyline features sleek towers, illuminated bridges, and impressive urban design.

West Lake and Its Surroundings

At the heart of Hangzhou is West Lake (西湖), a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the city’s most famous attraction. Surrounded by gentle hills, pagodas, and willow trees, it has inspired poets and painters for centuries. Visitors can walk or cycle around the lake, take a boat ride, or simply enjoy the calm scenery.
Two landmarks not to miss are Leifeng Pagoda (雷峰塔) and the Broken Bridge (断桥), both tied to the legend of the White Snake (白蛇传).

In the hills west of the lake stands Lingyin Temple (灵隐寺), one of China’s oldest and most important Buddhist temples, founded in 328 CE. Visitors can admire ancient carvings, offer incense, and hear monks chanting — a peaceful contrast to the city’s bustle.

The Grand Canal

About three kilometers north of West Lake lies another UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Grand Canal (大运河), the world’s longest artificial waterway. It once linked Beijing (北京) to Hangzhou, serving as a vital trade route for centuries.
Today, visitors can take a boat cruise past riverside houses, arched bridges, and small cafés, with the Gongchen Bridge (拱宸桥) area especially popular for photos and local snacks.

Cultural Experiences

In the evening, Songcheng (宋城) Theme Park brings the Song Dynasty to life with old-style buildings, performances, and street food. Its highlight, the “Songcheng Eternal Love” (宋城千古情) show, tells Hangzhou’s story through dance, music, and visual effects.

A short drive from West Lake, Meijiawu Tea Village (梅家坞茶村) is one of the best places in China to learn about Longjing (龙井茶), or Dragon Well tea. Visitors can walk through tea fields, watch tea-picking demonstrations, and enjoy freshly brewed tea in hillside teahouses.

Modern Hangzhou

On the modern side, Hangzhou is also known for its innovation and technology. The Hangzhou Future Sci-Tech City (未来科技城) showcases the city’s startup culture and research spirit. Within it, Dream Town (梦想小镇) serves as a creative hub filled with design studios, cafés, and exhibitions focused on smart technology and urban innovation. The area reflects the forward-looking character of today’s Hangzhou and its role as one of China’s leading tech centers.

Local Cuisine

Hangzhou’s cuisine is one of China’s eight great culinary traditions, known for its fresh, mild, and balanced flavors. Dishes are lightly seasoned and highlight the natural taste of ingredients.
The city’s most famous specialties include West Lake Vinegar Fish (西湖醋鱼) — tender fish served in a sweet and sour sauce; Dongpo Pork (东坡肉) — slow-braised pork belly named after the Song dynasty poet Su Dongpo (苏东坡); and Beggar’s Chicken (叫化鸡) — wrapped in lotus leaves, sealed in clay, and baked for hours.
Popular street snacks such as scallion pancakes (葱油饼) and sweet osmanthus cakes (桂花糕) offer simple and comforting flavors.

Silk and Traditional Clothing

Hangzhou has been famous for centuries for its silk production. The China National Silk Museum (中国丝绸博物馆), near Leifeng Pagoda, is the largest silk museum in the world. It displays ancient fabrics, weaving tools, and traditional garments, and explains how the Silk Road spread Chinese silk worldwide.

The city is also known for the qipao (旗袍, cheongsam), a traditional, elegant dress often made from silk and embroidery. Renting qipao or hanfu (汉服) for photo shoots around West Lake or other scenic spots is a popular activity. Many local shops provide outfits, hairstyling, and photography services, allowing visitors to experience the beauty of traditional Chinese fashion in an authentic setting.

Shopping and Local Markets

Hangzhou offers both traditional markets and modern malls. Hefang Street (河坊街), Xiaohe Straight Street (小河直街), Dadou Historic Block (大兜路步行街) and Wulin Market (武林夜市) are perfect for exploring local life — stroll through old streets, browse shops, and try regional snacks.
In contrast, Hubin Yintai in77 (湖滨银泰in77), near West Lake, is one of the city’s largest shopping complexes, featuring international brands, cafés, and restaurants. Together, they highlight the contrast between Hangzhou’s traditional markets and its modern retail scene.

Local Lifestyle and Traditions

Hangzhou’s lifestyle reflects the city’s essence — calm, balanced, and connected to nature. In the mornings, people often walk or practice tai chi by West Lake. Teahouses remain popular meeting spots, offering a slower pace of life than in larger cities. Despite modernization, many residents still celebrate seasonal festivals, wear hanfu at cultural events, and visit temples or tea villages on weekends. This mix of old and new gives Hangzhou its distinctive character.

Best Time to Visit & Conclusion

The best time to visit Hangzhou is in spring (March–April) and autumn (September–October), when the weather is mild and the scenery most beautiful. These seasons bring cultural festivals and outdoor activities, ideal for exploring the city’s natural and historic attractions.
Especially in autumn, it’s worth visiting Qingshan Lake (青山湖), just outside the city. Also known as the “Matcha Forest,” it’s surrounded by green hills and dense woods, with clear water and clusters of pond cypress trees that visitors can canoe through.

Hangzhou has one of the most modern transportation networks in China, with an efficient metro, convenient train and bus links, bicycle rentals, and scenic boat rides on West Lake and the Grand Canal, making it easy and enjoyable for visitors to explore the city and its attractions.

Hangzhou is a city where tradition and innovation meet, offering a perfect blend of history, nature, and modern life. It welcomes visitors to experience the essence of China in one place.

The post Discover China EP. 4 – Hangzhou first appeared on Bocconi Chinese Student Association.

What is Chinese calligraphy?

Calligraphy is the art of writing characters. It specifically refers to the artistic expression of Chinese characters through the use of the brush, the structure of the characters, composition, ink techniques, and script styles.

It is a unique art form that developed over time through the aesthetic practice of calligraphers and stands as one of the finest traditional cultural heritages of the Chinese nation.

Main calligraphic styles

Calligraphy originated in ancient China, it has a long history dating 4000 years. The earliest written records can be traced back to the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 BCE – 1046 BCE), found in the oracle bone inscriptions (甲骨文 jiǎgǔwén) and bronze inscriptions (金文 jīnwén).

Over the course of history, the art of calligraphy evolved through various script styles, including: Seal Script（篆书 Zhuàn shū), Clerical Script (隶书 Lì shū), Regular Script (楷书 Kǎi shū), Running Script (行书 Xíng shū), and Cursive Script (草书 Cǎo shū).

	Seal Script is the earliest form of calligraphy. It is characterized by an ancient and elegant style, with strong and forceful strokes and smooth, rounded lines. Its balanced structure and majestic aura reflect a sense of simplicity and grandeur.
	Clerical Script  flourished during the Qin and Han dynasties. It evolved from Seal Script, featuring broad and flat characters, with long, extended horizontal strokes and short, powerful verticals. Its distinctive “silkworm head and swallow tail” brushwork and the rhythmic “three turns in one stroke” technique give it a strong sense of rhythm and grace.
	Regular Script  developed from Clerical Script. It is neat and clear, with upright and square strokes. The beauty of Regular Script lies in its balanced and orderly structure, conveying a sense of calm precision.
	Running Script  stands out among all styles for its elegance and practicality. Its strokes flow naturally and smoothly, creating a lively and rhythmic sense of movement.
	Cursive Script originated in the Qin and Han periods. Its strokes are continuous and unbroken, with forms that shift unpredictably—sometimes bold and forceful, sometimes light and free, like “a startled snake slithering into the grass” or “a thirsty steed galloping toward a spring.” It gallops freely across the vast expanse of paper, full of vitality and expressive power.

Masters of Chinese Calligraphy

王羲之 – Wang Xizhi (303 – 361 CE)

He was a renowned calligrapher of the Eastern Jin dynasty, honored as the “Sage of Calligraphy.” (书圣 shū shèng)

Wang is known for his proficiency in multiple Chinese script styles, particularly the regular, semi-cursive, and cursive forms.

His masterpiece, the Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion (兰亭序 lán tíng xù), is celebrated as “the finest running script under heaven.”

颜真卿 – Yan Zhenqing (709 – 785 CE)

He was a celebrated calligrapher of the Tang dynasty, proficient in both running script and regular script. His style of regular script, often called Yan script (颜体 yán tǐ), brought Chinese calligraphy to a new realm, emphasizing strength, boldness, and grandness. 

Together with Zhao Mengfu, Liu Gongquan, and Ouyang Xun, he is honored as one of the “Four Great Masters of Regular Script.”

Representative works include the Duobao Pagoda Stele (多宝塔碑 duō bǎo tǎ bēi), the Draft of a Requiem to My Nephew (祭侄文稿 jì zhí wén gǎo）.

张旭 – Zhang Xu (8th century CE)

An eccentric and brilliant calligrapher of the Tang dynasty, known as the “Sage of Wild Cursive” (草圣 cǎo shèng).

He was celebrated for his wild cursive script (狂草 kuáng cǎo), characterized by bold, dynamic, and dance-like movements full of energy and emotion.

His most legendary work is said to have been created in a state of drunken inspiration：the Preface for Li Qinglian (李青莲序 lǐ qíng lián xù).

Tools

Behind every graceful character lies the craftsmanship of the Four Treasures of the Study (文房四宝 wén fáng sì bǎo): the brush (笔 bǐ), ink (墨 mò), paper (纸 zhǐ), and inkstone (砚 yàn). Around them are many supporting tools that complete the calligrapher’s studio.

1. Brush

The brush is the soul of calligraphy, there are many types of them:

• Goat-hair brushes (羊毫 yáng háo), which are soft, smooth, and elastic. It absorbs ink deeply and flows gracefully, ideal for cursive script (草书 cǎo shū), clerical script (隶书 lì shū), seal script (篆书 zhuàn shū), and freehand ink painting (写意画 xiě yì huà). Because it is sensitive and hard to control, it is often preferred by experienced artists.
  
• Wolf-hair brushes(狼毫 láng háo), made from weasel hair (黄鼠狼毫 huáng shǔ láng háo), firm and springy. It creates sharp, precise strokes and is excellent for regular script (楷书 kǎi shū) and running script (行书 xíng shū). Ideal for learners who need control.
  
• Mixed-hair brushes (兼毫 jiān háo), combine goat and wolf hair, balancing softness and strength. It’s easy to start and suitable for any style.
  
• Rabbit-hair brushes(兔毫 tù háo) are rarely used alone. It is fine, short, and soft, often mixed within other hairs to adjust flexibility and ink flow. 

Other materials include badger hair for strength, deer hair  for elasticity, and horse hair for a coarse texture.

2. Paper

Paper gives voice to the brush. The most revered is Xuan paper, produced in Jing County(泾县), Anhui Province. In Chinese calligraphy and painting, the choice of paper directly affects the texture, ink flow, and artistic atmosphere of a work. Different papers serve different purposes.

Types of Xuan Paper

• Raw Xuan (生宣 shēng xuān)：highly absorbent; ideal for free, expressive styles like cursive script or ink painting.
  
• Processed Xuan (熟宣 shú xuān):  treated to reduce absorbency; suitable for neat, precise writing such as regular script.
  
• Semi-processed Xuan (半生熟 bàn shēng shú): a balanced choice between the two, making it especially good for beginners.

Other Papers

• Maobian paper (毛边纸 máo biān zhǐ)：inexpensive practice paper made from wood pulp or recycled fibers. It absorbs ink moderately and is ideal for daily training.
  
• Scroll paper (绢纸 juān zhǐ): high-quality paper or silk used for mounting finished works; elegant but costly.
  
• Goose-skin paper (雁皮纸 yàn pí zhǐ): soft, slightly fibrous, with visible texture that gives a classical, antique charm.
  
• Bamboo paper and hemp paper (竹纸 zhú zhǐ and 麻纸 má zhǐ) are both rougher and more rustic, sometimes showing natural fiber remnants.
  
• Gold-flecked and colored paper (洒金纸 / 彩笺 sǎjīnzhǐ / cǎi jiān ) are decorated with gold dust or pigment, modern and decorative, used for creative calligraphy. Couplet paper (春联纸 chūn lián zhǐ), used for festive calligraphy such as Spring Festival couplets, also belongs to this decorative paper category.

3. Ink and Inkstone

In Chinese calligraphy, ink (墨 mò) and inkstone (砚 yàn) are more than tools, grinding ink before writing is a sacred act of focus, linking the artist’s hand, heart, and breath.

Ink Stick

Traditional ink is made from soot, animal glue, and aromatic ingredients, molded into solid ink sticks. When ground with water on an inkstone, it turns into the deep black ink that defines Chinese calligraphy and painting.

There are two main types of soot:

• Pine soot ink (松烟墨 sōng yān mò) — produced by burning pine wood. It creates a soft, bluish-black tone with a matte finish, perfect for calligraphy that values subtlety and balance.
  
• Oil soot ink (油烟墨 yóu yān mò) — made from vegetable or tung oil. It produces a deep, glossy black, often used in painting for strong contrasts.
• Mixed ink (混合墨 hùn hé mò) is made by blending oil soot and pine soot. It combines the softness of pine soot with the depth and gloss of oil soot, producing a balanced black suitable for both calligraphy and painting.

The process of making fine ink sticks requires exceptional skill. Premium sticks are hand-shaped, dried naturally, and aged for years. 

Inkstone

The inkstone (砚台 yàn tái) is used for grinding ink sticks (墨条 mò tiáo) into liquid ink. It stores water, helps control ink density, and provides a smooth surface for grinding.

The Four Famous Inkstones are: Duan Inkstone (端砚), She Inkstone (歙砚), Taohe Inkstone (洮河砚), Chengni Inkstone (澄泥砚).

High-quality inkstones come from specific quarries known as “pits” (坑 kēng)such as Laokeng (老坑) or Songkeng (宋坑). Like fine ink, true quality inkstones are rare and costly, and the market includes fakes polished to appear valuable. 

Auxiliary Tools 

Beyond the Four Treasures, many other tools support the calligrapher’s art. Paperweights keep the paper flat. Brush rests hold the brush gently when not in use. Brush washers are used to clean the brush, while seals and red ink paste serve as the artist’s signature, a final touch of life in red after the silence of black ink.

After writing, the work is carefully mounted using paste (浆糊 jiāng hú) and wool brushes. Mounting helps preserve a calligraphy work for a long time and allows it to be remounted or adjusted when needed.Some experienced restorers use hot water or steam when remounting old calligraphy works. The heat helps dissolve the old wheat-starch paste that holds the backing paper. 

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